Constructivist Learning and Teaching
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Intelligence organizes the world by organizing itself.
Characteristics ofConstructivist Learning & Teaching
Moving from constructivist philosophy, psychology and epistemology to the characterization of constructivist learning environments presents the challenge of synthesizing a large spectrum of somewhat disparate concepts. An appropriate analogy for the way in which constructivist concepts have evolved is that of a prism with many facets. While the facets reflect the same light and form one part of a whole, they nonetheless each present distinct and finely delineated boundaries.
The presentation of characteristics in this section aims to remain true to this analogy in that it recognizes and attempts to represent the variety of ways in which constructivism is articulated in the literature. Situated cognition, anchored instruction, apprenticeship learning, problem-based learning, generative learning, constructionism, exploratory learning: these approaches to learning are grounded in and derived from constructivist epistemology. Each approach articulates the way in which the concepts are operationalized for learning. The researchers and theorists whose perspectives are listed below suggest links between constructivist theory and practice. They provide the beginnings of an orienting framework for a constructivist approach to design, teaching or learning.
Jonassen (1991) notes that many educators and cognitive psychologists have applied constructivism to the development of learning environments. From these applications, he has isolated a number of design principles:
- Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant;
- Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems;
- The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems;
- Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content;
- Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed;
- Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool;
- Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of the world;
- Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner (pp.11-12).
Jonassen (1994) summarizes what he refers to as "the implications of constructivism for instructional design"
- The following principles illustrate how knowledge construction can be facilitated:
- Provide multiple representations of reality;
- Represent the natural complexity of the real world;
- Focus on knowledge construction, not reproduction;
- Present authentic tasks (contextualizing rather than abstracting instruction);
- Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequences;
- Foster reflective practice;
- Enable context-and content dependent knowledge construction;
- Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation (p.35).
Wilson & Cole (1991) provide a description of cognitive teaching models which "embody" constructivist concepts. From these descriptions, we can isolate some concepts central to constructivist design, teaching and learning:
- Embed learning in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;
- Provide for authentic versus academic contexts for learning;
- Provide for learner control;
- Use errors as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners' understanding (pp.59-61).
Paul Ernest (1995) in his description of the many schools of thought of constructivism suggests the following implications of constructivism which derive from both the radical and social perspectives:
- sensitivity toward and attentiveness to the learner's previous constructions;
- diagnostic teaching attempting to remedy learner errors and misconceptions;
- attention to metacognition and strategic self-regulation by learners;
- the use of multiple representations of mathematical concepts;
- awareness of the importance of goals for the learner, and the dichotomy between learner and teacher goals;
- awareness of the importance of social contexts, such as the difference between folk or street mathematics and school mathematics (and an attempt to exploit the former for the latter) (p.485).
Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments:
- Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;
- Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;
- Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;
- Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;
- Embed learning in social experience;
- Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;
- Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process (p.11).
An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding which is a process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be known. According to Vygotsky (1978), students' problem solving skills fall into three categories:
- ➢ skills which the student cannot perform
- ➢ skills which the student may be able to perform
- ➢ skills that the student can perform with help
Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be slightly beyond their ability without that assistance and guidance from the teacher. Appropriate teacher support can allow students to function at the cutting edge of their individual development. Scaffolding is therefore an important characteristic of constructivist learning and teaching.
The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals."
Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech".
Multiple perspectives, authentic activities, real-world environments these are just some of the themes that are frequently associated with constructivist learning and teaching. There were many similarities between the perspectives of different researchers in this brief review of the literature.
The following section presents a synthesis and summary of the characteristics of constructivist learning and teaching as presented by the above review and as suggested by the previous section on constructivist theory. These are not presented in a hierarchical order.
- 1. Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and encouraged.
- 2. Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or system.
- 3. . Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators.
- 4. Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage metacognition, self-analysis -regulation, -reflection & -awareness.
- 5. The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning.
- 6. Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic and represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'.
- 7. Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity and real-world complexity.
- 8. Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasized.
- 9. This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation, collaboration and experience.
- 10. The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in the knowledge construction process.
- 11. Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasized.
- 12. Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous knowledge constructions.
- 13. Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge independently and to manage the pursuit of their goals.
- 14. Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition.
- 15. Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning.
- 16. Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to expose the learner to alternative viewpoints.
- 17. Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.
- 18. Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching.
Introduction| Epistemology| Learning Theory| Characteristics| Checklist| Checklist Application| Summary| References|
This site was created by Elizabeth Murphy, Summer, 1997.
Multiple Intelligences (H. Gardner)
Overview:
The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees. Gardner proposes seven primary forms: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills).
According to Gardner, the implication of the theory is that learning/teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or musical intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities. Gardner points out that the different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning modalities. A further implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.
Gardner also emphasizes the cultural context of multiple intelligences. Each culture tends to emphasize particular intelligences. For example, Gardner (1983) discusses the high spatial abilities of the Puluwat people of the Caroline Islands, who use these skills to navigate their canoes in the ocean. Gardner also discusses the balance of personal intelligences required in Japanese society.
Scope/Application:
The theory of multiple intelligences has been focused mostly on child development although it applies to all ages. While there is no direct empirical support for the theory, presents evidence from many domains including biology, anthropology, and the creative arts and Gardner (1993a) discusses application of the theory to school programs. Gardner (1982, 1993b) explores the implications of the framework for creativity Gardner (1983)(see also Marks-Tarlow, 1995).
Example:
Gardner (1983, p 390) describes how learning to program a computer might involve multiple intelligences:
"Logical-mathematical intelligence seems central, because programming depends upon the deployment of strict procedures to solve a problem or attain a goal in a finite number of steps. Linguistic intelligence is also relevant, at least as long as manual and computer languages make use of ordinary language...an individual with a strong musical bent might best be introduced to programming by attempting to program a simple musical piece (or to master a program that composes). An individual with strong spatial abilities might be initiated through some form of computer graphics -- and might be aided in the task of programming through the use of a flowchart or some other spatial diagram. Personal intelligences can play important roles. The extensive planning of steps and goals carried out by the individual engaged in programming relies on intrapersonal forms of thinking, even as the cooperation needed for carrying a complex task or for learning new computational skills may rely on an individual's ability to work with a team. Kinesthetic intelligence may play a role in working with the computer itself, by facilitating skill at the terminal..."
Principles:
1. Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligences in learning.
2. Instructional activities should appeal to different forms of intelligence.
3. Assessment of learning should measure multiple forms of intelligence.
take a look at the muliple intelligences survey !
Directed Constructivist
Concentrates on teaching skills beginning with lower level skills and building to higher level skills. Learning through posing problems, looking for answers, and developing products and presentations.
Clearly state objectives with test items identical to them. Pursue goals like problem-solving and research skills.
More individualized work. More group work is emphasized.
Traditional teaching and assessment methods: lectures, skill worksheets, activities, and tests with expected responses. Alternative learning and assessment methods: open-ended questions, doing research, assessment by portfolios, performance checklists, and descriptive narratives written by teachers.
Teacher is the transmitter of knowledge as an expert source of information. Teacher guides and facilitates as students generate their own knowledge.
Students receive information; demonstrated competence; all students learn same material. Students collaborate with other students; develop competence; may learn different material.
Jean Piaget
His researches in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology had one unique goal: how does knowledge grow?
His answer is that the growth of knowledge is a progressive construction of logically embedded structures superseding one another by a process of inclusion of lower less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to adulthood. Therefore, children's logic and modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults.
THE RELEVANCE OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO EDUCATION
Education is not purely filling the empty vessel.
As teachers and parents some of us, well the ones over forty feel like we are on the edge of an abyss
Is this ITC the new world order taking over!
Well the truth is it is! It has already! Our children are busy texting,Blogging, listening to their I pods, working on their laptop with 4-5 screens open, talking and the World Cups Playing on the T.V in the background or is it in the background? As parents/teachers we can get frustrated with this and feel nothing is going on. Lets try looking at this situation with different glasses on and an open mind? If we assume two of the tasks are purely social and lets not forget Vygotsky, social activity is just as important, that leaves 4 screens on the computer an Ipod and the T.V, that’s still a lot going on! What is going on are multiple tasks, the engaging of multiple intelligences, what I like to call the new world Order.
A lot of us grew up believing HAL (2001 space odyssey) HAL was running US! But our children fully know they are running Hal owning Hal.
As teachers we need to be in this world and utilized ITC, and guide our students to higher learning and understanding the interactive qualities of cognitive and megacognitive thinking fosters learning for understanding. Theorist even claim that cognitive tools afford the potential to amplify and augment mental functioning (Pea1985Perkins1993)
As High School teachers we have to have programs that do address the multiply intelligences in our students, engage and enrich the individual experience as well as the whole class and is active in the world audience,
Constructivist education means the individual , the class, and the greater school community can access higher and deeper understanding in education.
Subjects become doable, emendable, malubable research, collaboration, evaluation, reflection, and presentation.
Constructivist education means the ability to inter weave, layer learning, in a scaffolding of sounds, Visuals, links, connections, that take a subject and the learner beyond research, gives relevance and takes the student into other subjects, to many other areas of education and life skills. Subjects and the learning experience becomes alive and tangible.
posted by bruns @ 9:28 PM
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